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Bernstein, B. (1977), "Foreword". In D. Adlam, G. H. Turner and L. Lineker (eds), Code in context . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

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确实是个矢量，这个观点是对的。

程恩富 生物学方法在经济学中的运用及其意义

7．1 导言：进化的含义

进化论是生物学中最大的统一理论，生物界的复杂现象：形态的、生理的、行为的适应，物种形成和灭绝，种内和种间关系等等现象都只能在近乎理论基础上得到统一的解释。生物学各科无不贯穿着进化论的原则思想。杜布占斯基（Dobzhansky）说过，没有进化论的指导，生物学就不成其为科学。进化论发展历史大体经历了两个阶段：第一阶段是进化论作为创世说（特创论）的对立面而产生，并最终战胜和替代后者的过程；第二阶段是进化论本身的深入发展过程，即从生物组织的各层次逐步揭示进化原因、机制和规律的过程。现代的进化论已经不仅仅是作为创世说的对立面的科学世界观，它正逐步发展成为一种科学理论，进化的理论、思想和观点渗透到生物学的各个领域，同时又吸收和综合了生物学各科的研究成果。正如迈尔所说的（E•Mayr）,“进化论是生物学中最大的统一理论。”

Evolution一词来自拉丁文evolvo-和evolutis,意为展开，即把卷紧的东西（布、书卷）松开，在生物学中被译为进化，在其他场合常被译为演化。在达尔文时代，evolution一词被赋予“进步”的含义，即指事物由低级的、简单的形式向高级的、复杂的形式转变的过程。但达尔文认为，生物进化不一定都是“进步”，他用“有变化的传衍”（descent with modification）来表示生物随时间既变化又连续（传衍）的过程，这也就是我们今天所理解的进化。给evolution一词下现代流行定义的是英国哲学家斯宾塞，他认为：进化乃是物质的整合与之相伴随的耗散，在此过程中物质由不定的、支离破碎的同质状态转变为有条理的异质状态，而且进化是一切物质的发展规律。可见斯宾塞的定义即可包含生物的进化，也可包含非生物的进化；既可指自然界的进化，也可代表社会结构和文化系统的发展和变迁（文化进化）。这就是广义进化的含义，此时，evolution常被译作演化。由于其定义是指物质由无序到有序、从同质到异质、从简单到复杂的有方向的变化过程，因此为生物学家和其他领域的学者所接受。

生物进化是一个特殊现象，是通过传代（遗传）过程中的变化而实现的。生物进化是生物与其生存环境相互作用过程中，其遗传系统随时间而发生一系列不可逆的改变，并导致相应的表型的改变。在大多数情况下，这种改变导致生物总体对其生存环境的相对适应。而演化一词作为广义的概念越来越多地应用于非生物学领域（例如天文学、地质学和经济学中），成为一个常用词。

7．2 生物学中的几个定义及其理论

7．2．1达尔文的“自然选择”学说及其修正

自然选择是指任何生物产生的生殖细胞或后代的数目要远远多于可能存活的个体数目（繁殖过剩），而在所产生的后代中，平均说来，那些具有最适应环境条件的有利变异的个体有较大的生存的机会，并繁殖后代，从而使有利变异可以世代积累，不利变异被淘汰。